Exploring Role Conflict and Work-Family Balance: How Do Challenges Differ for Parent and Non-Parent Counsellors Working with Young People?

Katie Gregory (2024)

Department of Psychology 

University of Wolverhampton 

How do associations between role conflict-ambiguity and work-family conflict manifest among parent-counsellors and non-parent counsellors working with young people aged 0-18? 

Abstract 

This study examined the relationship between role conflict-ambiguity (RCA) and work-family conflict (WFC) among counsellors working with young people (ages 0-18), comparing parents and non-parents. Using a comparative associational design and employing the pre-validated Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale and the Work-Family Conflict Scale, with 56 participants recruited via convenience and snowball sampling. 

Results indicated a significant positive association between RCA and WFC across all participants, but parental status did not significantly alter the strength of these associations. Parent-counsellors showed notable correlations between RCA and the Work interfering with Family Conflict (WIF) dimension (r = 0.45, p < .01), and WIF was a significant predictor of role ambiguity (β = 0.43). Conversely, non-parents displayed weaker and non-significant correlations between RCA and WFC measures, with their overall levels of role conflict being higher but less impactful on WFC. 

The findings underscored the substantial challenges faced by parent-counsellors in balancing their dual roles, leading to greater role ambiguity and conflict. Although the primary caregiving status did not significantly affect the results, the lack of statistical significance in Fisher’s z tests suggested that the impact of parental status on RCA and WFC is consistent across both groups. Future research should focus on refining measurement tools to better capture the experiences of counsellors with diverse parenting responsibilities and explore how these dynamics affect their professional and personal well-being. 

Acknowledgements 

For all those who journey with mental health challenges, and their supporters who have underscored the importance of understanding the impacts of conflict and ambiguity within roles. Their resilience and courage have shaped our commitment to advancing knowledge in this field, aiming to improve support systems for all counsellors with a particular focus for those balancing professional roles with parenting responsibilities. 

Chapter 1 Introduction 

1.1 An Overview of Role Conflict and Work-Family Dynamics 

Role conflict (RC) occurs when the demands of one role are incompatible with those of another, creating stress and potential performance issues in either or both roles (Creary & Gordon, 2016; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Tubre & Collins, 2000). This incompatibility can lead to increased stress, decreased job satisfaction, and diminished effectiveness in fulfilling role responsibilities. The interplay between family life and professional responsibilities often results in work-family conflict (WFC), where work demands interfere with family life and vice versa (Frone et al., 1997; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Professions requiring high emotional labour, such as counselling, are prevalent for this type of conflict, where professionals must navigate the demands of their roles as caregivers at work and at home. Theories such as Role Strain Theory (Goode, 1960) and Boundary Theory (Ashforth et al., 2000) provide a lens for understanding how individuals manage, often struggle but can also thrive with these overlapping roles. These dynamics are further complicated in the context of counsellors who work with young people, as these professionals often face additional challenges related to the emotional intensity of their work, the ethical dilemmas they encounter, and the specific needs of the younger population they serve (Hilts & Luke, 2024; Kimber & Campbell, 2013). 

1.2 Counselling Young People in Today’s World 

Counselling young people (YP) involves unique challenges that differentiate it from other forms of counselling. Young clients often present with issues that are distinctively tied to developmental stages or generational contexts, such as identity formation, peer pressure, and increasingly, digital life challenges (Glasheen et al, 2013; Noonan, 2002). Today’s world adds layers of complexity with widespread digital engagement, cultural shifts, and evolving family structures which impact both YP and those who counsel them. Counsellors must adapt to these dynamics, often while managing their own work-life balance. The stressors inherent in these roles may exacerbate RC and impact counsellors’ effectiveness and personal well-being.  

1.3 Parental Impact on Professional Dynamics in Counselling 

The dual demands of parenting and counselling create unique pressures and critical areas for research (Bryant & Constantine, 2006; Hermann et al., 2018). This study investigates how parental responsibilities affect the professional efficacy and stress management of counsellors working with YP. Parental responsibilities may intensify the emotional and time-related pressures that are inherent in counselling roles, potentially leading to higher levels of WFC and role ambiguity (RA). Understanding this impact is crucial for supporting parent-counsellors in their dual roles. The study defines ‘parent’ as any caregiver for a child aged 0-18 years and ‘primary caregiver’ as the parent most involved in caregiving. 

1.4 Research Focus 

This study examines the associations between Role Conflict and Ambiguity (RCA) and Work Family Conflict (WFC) among counsellors working with young people, comparing parent and non-parent counsellors. It aims to discover if parenting amplifies the challenges faced by counsellors, particularly how these roles interact and conflict. 

1.5 Aims of the Study 

The primary aim is to investigate the relationships between RCA and WFC, especially in the daily lives of parent-counsellors compared to non-parent counsellors. The study’s specific objectives are: 

• To quantify the degree of RCA and WFC experienced by counsellors of YP and to compare these levels between parent and non-parent counsellors. 

• To explore how parenting status influences these conflicts, focusing on the differences in RCA and WFC between parent and non-parent counsellors. 

Hypotheses 

• H1: There will be a positive association between RCA and WFC among counsellors who work with young people. 

• H2: Parent-counsellors will exhibit a stronger positive association between RCA and WFC compared to non-parent counsellors, suggesting more complex interactions due to the dual responsibilities of parenting and counselling. 

1.6 Importance of this Study 

This study is significant in addressing RC and work-family balance among counsellors of young people, especially post-COVID-19. The pandemic has heightened mental health issues among YP (Kauhanen et al., 2022) and increased family pressures (Kahraman et al., 2021), intensifying the ‘double burden’ on primary caregivers. Although women predominantly navigate these dual roles, this study includes all parental caregivers to investigate whether similar challenges arise organically across all genders. Role Balance Theory suggests that effectively managing these roles enhances well-being despite potential conflicts (Marks, 2001; Marks & MacDermid, 1996). 

By exploring how caregivers manage overlapping responsibilities, this research aims to develop interventions to reduce RC and help counsellors manage work and family demands effectively. These insights are crucial for policy changes within organisations and education, enhancing counselling services and ultimately supporting counsellors’ well-being, improving care standards for YP. This study contributes to understanding the interplay between professional and personal roles among counsellors, fostering better support systems for parents and carers in the profession. 

Chapter 2. Literature Review 

2.1 Defining Role Conflict and Ambiguity 

Role conflict and ambiguity are crucial in understanding the challenges professionals face, especially in high-stress environments like counselling (Bowling et al., 2017; Tubre & Collins, 2000; Van Sell et al., 1981). For counsellors, who balance the emotional demands of clients with personal responsibilities, these constructs are not abstract but significantly shape their lives. RC arises when one role’s demands impede another’s, manifesting acutely in the tension between client care and family obligations, often exacerbated by burnout (Van Hoy & Rzeszutek, 2022). The application of Role Strain Theory (Goode, 1960) is critical as it shows that these competing demands undermine physical and psychological well-being. In professions with high emotional labour, such strain is not incidental but a fundamental stressor that decreases job satisfaction and heightens stress (Anglin et al, 2022; Atkinson, 2023; Kahn et al., 1964; Peterson et al., 1995; Rizzo et al., 1970). 

Similarly, RA significantly impacts counsellors, where unclear expectations or insufficient role information lead to uncertainty (Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Maden-Eyiusta, 2019; Tubre & Collins, 2000). This ambiguity is particularly problematic in counselling, where balancing personal empathy and professional detachment is essential. Vague guidelines, perception or reality, can increase job dissatisfaction and anxiety, which negatively affect client care (Hermansson, 1997). Boundary Management Theory provides an ambitious framework to understand and address this ambiguity (Ashforth et al., 2000; Clark, 2000). Effective boundary management can mitigate the adverse effects, enhancing work-life balance and job satisfaction. However, this requires substantial skill and resilience. 

Critically, these theories do more than describe challenges, they offer a nuanced understanding of potential outcomes. While often linked to negative effects like stress, burnout, and reduced commitment, especially harmful in counselling due to its impact on client care, they also present opportunities for growth (Bryant & Constantine, 2006). Navigating these challenges successfully can enhance job mastery, resilience, and satisfaction. Boundary Management Theory, in particular, highlights that well-managed boundaries can transform role conflicts into opportunities for flexibility and resilience, improving well-being (Ashforth et al., 2000). 

2.2 Defining Work-Family Dynamics 

Work-family conflict (WFC) is a specific type of RC that occurs when work and family domains are incompatible, causing stress and tension (Byron, 2005; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Haslam et al., 2004; Michel et al., 2011). There are two constructs at play here Work Interfering with Family (WIF) and Family Interfering with Work (FIW). This conflict is critical for counsellors, whose job demands often infringe on family time and responsibilities. Effective management of work-family dynamics is crucial for counsellors’ well-being and effectiveness (Allen et al., 2000; Cinamon, 2010; Tatman et al., 2006). 

Counsellors, particularly those with parental responsibilities, face frequent interdomain transition shifts between professional and family roles (Mathews et al, 2013). Alongside, diurnal patterns of pressure that naturally fluctuate over the day and place demands on the counsellor (French et al, 2022). These transitions are often unpredictable and frequent, especially in counselling roles that may require responsiveness to crises or emergency situations beyond typical working hours (Pereira & Rekha, 2017). Women often face higher WFC due to the double burden hypothesis, leading to higher sickness absence rates (Nilson et al., 2017). Understanding and mitigating WFC is essential in the counselling profession. 

2.3 Reported Double Burden 

The “double burden” or “second shift” describes the dual responsibilities of managing paid employment alongside unpaid domestic labour, including childcare and housekeeping, which predominantly affects women (Craig, 2007; Chen et al., 2017; Nilsen et al., 2017; Seedat & Rondon, 2021). This strain is especially pronounced among women occupying counselling roles, where the demands of professional and personal responsibilities can significantly overlap (Hermann et al., 2016). Studies show that women are more likely to be the primary caregivers in their families and are also significantly represented in counselling professions, leading to heightened RC and WFC (Haslam et al., 2017). Egalitarian cultures, that support progressive post-gender marriages and partnerships (where roles, responsibilities, and behaviours are not confined by traditional gender norms) sometimes see task distribution discrepancies, impacting co-parenting quality and increasing the double burden (Cotter et al., 2011; Pessin, 2017; Sümer & Eslen‐Ziya, 2022). 

Factors contributing to the double burden include the rise of dual-earner families, single-parent households, economic necessity, cultural expectations, inadequate support infrastructures, and technological advances (Chen et al., 2017; Hervey & Shaw, 1998; Nilsen et al., 2017; Rees et al., 2023; Seedat & Rondon, 2021). Dual-earner families and single parents often face heightened stress from balancing work and family roles, compounded by financial pressures and cultural expectations. The lack of sufficient support systems, such as affordable childcare and flexible work options, further exacerbates this challenge. Additionally, technological advances, while enabling remote work, can blur the boundaries between work and family life. Understanding these factors is crucial for fully grasping the origins of the double burden and addressing WFC effectively. 

2.4 Reported Parental Stress at Work 

Working parents, especially in individualistic societies like the UK, report higher stress levels due to dual professional and parenting demands (Adams et al., 2021; American Psychological Association, 2020; Ning et al., 2023; Rajgariah et al., 2020). Counselling, particularly school counselling, has become a highly gender-segregated profession, with women fulfilling a significant proportion of the field (Brown, 2017; Bondi, 2006). In the US, women comprise of 83% of counselling MA students (CACREP, 2017), a stark contrast to the 1950s when men predominantly occupied these roles (Mezzano, 1968 in Crockett et al., 2018). These rates are parallelled in the UK with the gender imbalance of 84% women and 16% male (Brown, 2017). Notably however, these statistics have been taken from WIERD (Western, educated, industrial, rich and democratic) countries and to provide true population comparison further studies are required from additional societies (Muthukrishna, 2020).  

This demographic shift places unique pressures on the majority female workforce. With an amplification of these pressures for primary caregivers, as they navigate the complex interplay of meeting both work and home demands (Hawken et al, 2018; Phillips et al, 2022; Premeaux et al, 2007). Women again being at the forefront, predominately providing these roles and often without adequate support systems (Lorenz-Dant & Mittelman, 2021; Sharma et al, 2016; Swinkels et al, 2017). These scenarios are particularly challenging in the context of counselling YP, where the emotional demands of the job can be intense and the boundaries between professional and personal life often blur (Amaglo, 2022; Md Nor et al, 2023). 

The predominance of women in these roles necessitates a gender-sensitive approach to addressing job stress and work-life balance, considering historical and societal gender role constructs (Verdonk et al, 2019). Effective interventions to support counsellors, particularly those who are parents and primary caregivers, must therefore be attuned to these gender dynamics, ensuring that policies and practices within educational and mental health institutions are equitable and supportive of work-life integration. This is not only crucial for the well-being of the counsellors but also for the efficacy of the counselling services they provide. 

2.5 Counselling Young People and Reported Job Conflict 

Counsellors who work with YP face distinct challenges that stem from the deeply emotional nature of their interactions, compounded by the increased complexities of the modern socio-educational environment (Pattison & Harris, 2006; Westergaard, 2013). RC from emotional labour, combined with family responsibilities, escalates burnout and stress if not managed (Barber & Iwai, 1996; Edú-Valsania et al., 2022; Jeung et al., 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic has increased counsellors’ burdens due to higher demands and stretched resources (World Health Organisation, 2022; Radfar et al., 2021; Savitz-Romer et al., 2021). With Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) facing increased waiting lists and higher thresholds for treatment eligibility, counsellors in education settings are often the first line of support for distressed youth, intensifying their workloads and emotional strain (Alexander et al, 2022; De Souza, 2024; Pincus et al, 2020). 

Furthermore, the impact of technology and the internet appears to have led to a surge in self-diagnosing and gaining mass awareness of mental health conditions and psychosocial problems (Dienlin & Johannes, 2020; Rutter et al, 2023). This shift for YP requires counsellors to manage heightened anxieties and address misinformation which adds complexity to their roles and potentially increases job conflicts (Verma et al, 2022). Effective management requires robust support systems, professional development, and strategies for work-life balance (Gragnano et al., 2021). 

2.6 Reported Impact of the Current Mental Health Crisis 

The ongoing mental health crisis, compounded by societal changes and the COVID-19 pandemic, has significantly impacted children, families and society at large (WHO, 2022). This crisis has intensified the demands of professionals providing mental health support, highlighting the limitations of traditional models   that depict mental health issues as merely diseases (Benning, 2015; Deacon, 2013; Hogan, 2019). Instead, there is a shift towards continuum models of mental health, viewing psychological well-being as a spectrum influenced by various determinants (Cromby et al, 2013; Peter et al, 2021). This perspective promotes a trauma-informed approach (Sweeney et al, 2018) and fosters a deeper understanding of mental health, addressing the underlying causes of human distress, thereby improving work-family dynamics and reducing work-related stress among mental health professionals. 

The crisis underscores the need for intersectionality and socio-cultural context consideration in mental health (Funer, 2023). Increased workloads and complex client needs, particularly young clients, exacerbate role conflicts and work-family tensions (Allen et al., 2000; Savitz-Romer et al., 2021). Further research is needed on how parent-counsellors manage these dual challenges, including the navigation of managing distress in their own children whilst working with a similar client group. Addressing these factors is crucial for supportive work environments, reducing burnout, and helping professionals manage personal and professional demands effectively. 

2.7 Conclusion and Implications 

This review critically examines RC and work-family dynamics among counsellors working with YP, focusing on the unique challenges faced by parent-counsellors. It highlights gaps in empirical data on the specific stressors these professionals face and aims to develop interventions to enhance role management and well-being, recognising the crucial balance between professional and personal responsibilities. The research’s implications extend beyond counselling, offering insights applicable to other professions with high emotional labour and overlapping roles. By integrating Role Strain Theory (Goode, 1960) and Boundary Theory (Ashforth et al., 2000), this study lays the groundwork for policy and practice reforms that could create more supportive environments, particularly for those with caregiving responsibilities. Such changes would improve counsellors’ well-being, professional effectiveness, and contribute to a more equitable workplace. Moreover, the study highlights the need for a broader societal shift to address systemic factors exacerbating RC and WFC, paving the way for strategies that support mental health professionals in managing dual roles, thus promoting career sustainability and better outcomes for those they serve. 

Chapter 3.  Research Methods and Timescales  

3.1 Study Design 

This study employed a cross-sectional survey design (Coolican, 2017), which facilitated the review of role dynamics and conflict for this specific population of professionals. A snapshot of how these variables interplay at a single point in time is collected because of this design structure, which then allows for a basis to identify potential causal relationships and associations (Wang & Cheng, 2020). This design was chosen for its effectiveness and efficiency in capturing such a broad snapshot of current associations. However, it is important to note that due to the nature of this design, it does not allow for the establishment of causality but instead the identification of relationships between the variables (Setia, 2006). This is a dominant choice of study design for constructs such as RCA and WFC within organisational behaviour research, which focuses on people analytics, through data driven means (Polzer, 2023). 

By incorporating both non-parent and parent-counsellors working with YP, the study enhances its ability to contrast and compare the impact of parental status on the professional well-being and stress levels within this demographic, crucial for interventions aimed at improving counsellors’ well-being and efficacy (Cohen et al, 2017). Overall, the research available that looks at role dynamics and conflict for counsellors of YP is limited, with most research touching on this area rather than focusing specifically on it (Bryant & Constantine, 2006; Hermann et al, 2018). In line with a post-positivism epistemological stance, the quantitative structured data collection and pre-validated surveys that are used in this study ensured that data from within this emerging area is systematically gathered, replicable and considers the recognition of errors or potential biases (Godwin et al, 2021; Jackson & Dolan, 2021; Panhwar et al, 2017). This overall study design allowed for applicability, ethical simplicity, a detailed comparative analysis alongside quantitative insights and future replicability (Cohen et al, 2017; Howitt & Cramer, 2020).  

3.2 Participants 

The study aimed to recruit counsellors or mental health professionals qualified to work with children and YP aged 0-18. To achieve a representative sample, both convenience and snowball sampling strategies were used (Gliner et al., 2017). Participants were recruited through the University of Wolverhampton’s student databases and social media platforms like Facebook, where counsellors often engage in specialised forums. The recruitment did not specifically target equal distribution between parent and non-parent counsellors. Instead, participant status was determined through demographic questions in the survey, allowing categories to emerge naturally (Negida & Elfil, 2017). This post-stratification approach enhanced the ecological validity of the study, ensuring findings are applicable to real-world settings. The sampling strategy also accounted for potential variances in subgroup participation, aiming to enhance representativeness and mitigate sampling biases (Gliner et al., 2017; Sarker & AL-Muaalemi, 2022). 

Aiming for a 95% confidence interval, the study sought precise, reliable estimations of population parameters (Hespanhol et al, 2019). Using GPower 3.1, the required sample size was determined as at least 84 participants, based on an alpha of 0.05, a power of 80%, and a medium effect size (correlation) of 0.3 (Faul et al., 2009; Appendix A). 

The survey was accessed by 89 participants. All 89 participants consented to the study, however 33 participants failed to complete further than 5% of the study or had multiple missing answers and so were excluded from the dataset. Consequently, 56 completed responses were analysed in the study. This total fell short of the targeted minimum sample size of 84 participants. The overall completion rate for the study, reflecting those who fully completed all questionnaires and provided consent, stood at 66.67% (n=56). 

Participants provided demographic information, including age, gender, caregiver status, number of children, years of counselling experience, and monthly working hours (Appendix D). This enriched the data set for nuanced analysis (Jones et al., 2020). As seen in Table 1, of the 41 parents, 15% identified as male, 82.5% as female, and 2.5% as non-binary or third gender. Among the 15 non-parent participants, 1 (6.67%) identified as male and 14 (93.33%) as female, with none identifying as non-binary or third gender. This mirrors the UK’s gender imbalance of 84% women and 16% men (Brown, 2017), reflecting societal norms in this study. 

Table 1. 

Frequencies for categorical measures by parental status. 

			Frequency (Valid %)
Measure		Category	Parent N=41	Non-Parent N=15
Age	18-25 years	1	1 (2.50%)	3 (20.00%)
	26-35 years	2	5 (12.50%)	7 (46.67%)
	36-45 years	3	19 (45.50%)	2 (13.33%)
	46-55 years	4	12 (30.00%)	2 (13.33%)
	56-65 years	5	3 (7.50%)	1 (6.07%)
		Missing	1	0
Gender	Male	1	6 (15.00%)	1 (6.67%)
	Female	2	33 82.50%)	14 (93.33%)
	Non-Binary	3	1 (2.50%)	0 (0.00%)
		Missing	1	0

3.3 Materials 

Participants completed two validated instruments: the Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale (Bowling et al., 2017) and the Work-Family Conflict Scale (Haslam et al., 2014). These scales, chosen for their reliability and validity, eliminate the need for a pilot study. They precisely quantify role stresses, providing critical insights into how these pressures affect counsellors’ personal and professional responsibilities. 

The Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale (Bowling et al., 2017) comprises 12 items, using a 7-point Likert scale for responses, including reverse scoring on certain items to address different perspectives. The scale is structured around two primary factors: ‘Role Conflict’ and ‘Role Ambiguity,’ each capturing distinct aspects of how conflicting roles and unclear expectations affect individuals (Appendix B). Alongside, the Work-Family Conflict Scale (Haslam et al., 2014) consisting of 10 items that assess the conflict between work and family responsibilities. It uses a 7-point unidirectional Likert scale for responses. The scale is organised into two dimensions: Work Interfering with Family (WIF) and Family Interfering with Work (FIW), capturing how each domain impacts the other (Appendix C). 

3.4 Procedure 

Participants were invited to the study via Qualtrics, a secure online survey platform. The study was advertised on the University of Wolverhampton Psychology Course Cafe and social networks like Facebook and LinkedIn. Bi-weekly reminders were issued to optimise response rates, and regular checks were conducted on advertisements (Appendix E) to address questions. Anonymity and confidentiality of responses were strictly maintained. Responses were collected over seven weeks from May 14th to July 3rd, 2024. Participants reviewed the Participant Information Sheet (Appendix F) and provided informed consent electronically (Appendix G). They then completed the Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale, Work-Family Conflict Scale (Appendix B & C), and a demographic questionnaire (Appendix H), taking approximately 20 minutes. Finally, to conclude participants reviewed a De-Brief Form (Appendix I). Data were initially analysed in Microsoft Excel for cleaning and review, then transferred to JASP software for detailed examination (Version 0.17.1; JASP Team, 2023). 

3.5 Ethics 

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Wolverhampton’s Ethics Committee (Appendix J), ensuring informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw without penalty (Howitt & Cramer, 2020; Hwang & Kang, 2023; Nurmi et al., 2018. No identifiable data was collected from participants, with all information anonymised and securely stored on Qualtrics in compliance with GDPR regulations and British Psychological Society (2021) ethical guidelines. 

The study uses a critical quantitative approach, grounded in feminist ethics (Mills & Mullany, 2011; Jaggar, 2015; Ramazanoglu & Holland, 2002) and a post-positive stance, to address systemic power structures. This approach involves several key steps to tackle specific ethical challenges. First, it acknowledges the systemic issues faced by female counsellors balancing professional and caregiving roles (Brown, 2017; Bondi, 2006) and integrates feminist principles to ensure inclusivity and fairness. By striving for a diverse sample across all genders and caregiving roles, including those with ‘equal status,’ the study aimed to ensure a comprehensive representation of experiences. The research identifies and aims to mitigate resource inequalities affecting work-family interfaces, aligning with feminist goals of equity in the counselling profession. Additionally, it extends beyond simple correlations to critically examine broader social and institutional power relations, thereby fostering a more just and equitable professional environment for all counsellors (Aker, 1990; Collins & Bilge, 2016; Godwin et al., 2021). 

Chapter Four Results 

4.1 Descriptive Statistics 

Descriptive statistics for the RCAS and the WFCS are presented for parents (Group 1) and non-parents (Group 2) in Table 2. Parents reported lower average scores on the RCAS (M = 3.22, SD = 1.02) compared to non-parents (M = 3.86, SD = 0.95), indicating less perceived RCA. The average scores on the WFCS were slightly higher for non-parents (M = 3.54, SD = 1.18) than for parents (M = 3.37, SD = 1.33), suggesting a marginally higher level of WFC among non-parents. However, on closer inspection of the FIW Subscale  for parents it indicates they experience greater difficulty in managing work demands with family responsibilities compared to non-parents. This suggests that while non-parents may report higher overall levels of RCA, parents potentially face more acute conflicts specifically related to family interference with work.  Both scales showed considerable variability in scores. These variances indicate diverse experiences within the groups regarding RC, RA, and WFC, highlighting the importance of exploring how other covariates may influence these perceptions (Andrade, 2024). 

Table 2. 

Descriptive statistics and parental differences for measures. 

	Mean (SD)
	Overall N=56	Parents N=41	Non-Parents N=15
RCAS Total	3.39 (1.04)	3.22 (1.02)	3.86 (0.95)
WFC Total	3.41 (1.29)	3.37 (1.33)	3.54 (1.18)
RC Subscale	2.48 (1.03)	2.34 (0.91)	2.84 (1.27)
RA Subscale	4.30 (1.45)	4.09 (1.43)	4.86 (1.37)
WIF Subscale	3.56 (1.48)	3.39 (1.55)	4.01 (1.21)
FIW Subscale	3.26 (1.46)	3.34 (1.52)	3.07 (1.31)

4.2 Distribution of the Data  

A Shapiro-Wilk test was conducted to assess the normality of the data (Hanusz et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2019). The subscale mean scores showed significant deviations from normality: RC (W = 0.82, p = 0.001), RA (W = 0.89, p = 0.002), WIF (W = 0.86, p = 0.001), and FIW (W = 0.88, p = 0.002). However, total scores for RCAS and WFCS were normally distributed. Consequently, correlations were assessed for normality pairwise. Pearson’s correlation was used where normality was confirmed (e.g., WFCS Total and RA Subscale), while Spearman’s rho was applied for the RC Subscale and other non-normal distributions. 

4.3 Correlation 

Correlation analysis, as presented in Table 3, identified significant positive relationships between the RCAS Total and both WFCS Total (r = 0.397, p < .05) and WIF Subscale (r = 0.416, p < .01) among parents, as well as a moderate but non-significant correlation with the FIW Subscale (r = 0.276, p > .05). The WFCS Total also shows a significant positive association with the RA Subscale (r = 0.403, p < .001) and a moderate positive correlation with the RC Subscale (ρ = 0.331, p < .05). Notably, the RA Subscale also shows a significant positive correlation with the WIF Subscale (r = 0.445, p < .01). This supports the hypothesis that higher levels of RCA are associated with increased WFC among individuals with parental responsibilities. 

Among non-parents, the RCAS Total demonstrates a strong positive relationship with the WFCS Total scale (r = 0.533, p < .05), which is statistically significant. Additionally, the RCAS Total shows a significant positive correlation with the WIF Subscale (r = 0.536, p < .05). In contrast, the correlations between RCAS Total and the RA Subscale (r = 0.453, p > .05) and the FIW Subscale (r = 0.463, p > .05) are weaker and not statistically significant. These findings indicate that for non-parents, RCAS Total has a significant association with both the overall WFCS scale and the WIF subscale, while the associations with the RA and FIW subscales are not statistically significant. 

Fisher’s z transformation (Cox, 2008) indicated that the difference in correlation coefficients between parents and non-parents for RCAS and WFCS Total was not statistically significant (z = -0.526, p = 0.299). This suggests that while individual correlations may be significant within each group, the overall pattern of relationships remains consistent across parental statuses. For both WFCS Total – RA Subscale and WIF Subscale – RA Subscale, the Fisher’s z analyses showed no significant difference in correlation magnitudes between parents and non-parents, indicating a similar pattern of associations across groups. Additionally, the primary caregiver variable was not significantly associated with RCAS or WFCS measures (e.g., r = -0.078, p = 0.635 for RCAS). 

Table 3. 

Correlation Coefficients for RCAS and WFCS and their Subscales by Parental Status 

Parental Status	RCAS Total  Pearson’s r	RA Subscale Pearson’s r	RC Subscale  Spearman’s ρ
Parents (n=41)
WFCS Total	0.397*	0.403***	0.331*
WIF Subscale	0.416**	0.445**	0.317*
FIW Subscale	0.276	0.255	0.294
Non-Parents (n=14)
WFCS Total	0.533*	0.453	0.378
WIF Subscale	0.536*	0.510	0.315
FIW Subscale	0.463	0.342	0.483

Note: Pearson’s r was used for RCAS Total and RA Subscale correlations. Spearman’s Rho (ρ) was used for correlations involving the RC Subscale. 

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001.   

4.4. T-tests 

The Shapiro-Wilk and Levene’s tests confirm the suitability of t-tests for the data, as distributions for RCAS and WFCS are normal, and variances are equal across groups. Given the non-significant results (RCAS p=0.71, 0.61; WFCS p=0.43, 0.16 for normality and RCAS p=0.45; WFCS p=0.91 for variances), parametric testing, specifically independent samples t-tests, was appropriate for further analysis (Coolican, 2017). 

The results, as shown in Table 5, revealed a significant difference in the RCAS total scores, with non-parents (CV = 0.25) scoring higher than parents (CV = 0.32), t(54)=−2.08 p=0.04. This indicates that non-parents experience significantly greater RCA compared to parents. In contrast, no significant differences were found on the WFCS total scores, t(54)=−0.45, p=0.66, suggesting that both groups experience similar levels of WFC. Correspondingly, no significant differences were observed on the RC Subscale, t(54)=−1.64, p=0.11; the RA Subscale, t(54)=−1.78, p=0.08; the WIF Subscale, t(54)=−1.14, p=0.17; or the FIW Subscale, t(54)=0.61, p=0.54. These results suggest that while non-parents report higher RCA, other aspects of work-family balance do not differ significantly between parents and non-parents. Additionally, the coefficient of variation for the RCAS was lower among non-parents (0.25) compared to parents (0.32), indicating a more consistent response pattern in the non-parent group. Similarly, the coefficient of variation for the WFCS was also lower for non-parents (0.33) than for parents (0.40). This suggests that perceptions of RC and WFC are more homogeneous among non-parents compared to parents. 

Table 4.  

 Independent Samples T-Test Results for RCAS and WFCS by Parental Status. 

Measure	t (Coefficient of variation)
	Parent (N=41)	Non-Parent (N=15)	df
RCAS Total	-2.08* (0.32)	-2.08* (0.25)	54
WFCS Total	-0.45 (0.40)	-0.45 (0.33)	54
RC Subscale	-1.64 (0.39)	-1.64(0.45)	54
RA Subscale	-1.78 (0.35)	-1.78 (0.28)	54
WIF Subscale	-1.14 (0.46)	-0.14 (0.30)	54
FIW Subscale	0.61 (0.45)	0.61 (0.43)	54

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 

 4.5 Linear Regressions 

Multiple linear regressions were performed after splitting the dataset based on parental status to examine potential predictors and to control for shared variance (Sun et al, 2023). The regression models included the RA Subscale, RC Subscale, WIF Subscale and FIW Subscale. Durbin-Watson tests were conducted, and all models showed no significant autocorrelation. For example, in the RA model with WFC predictors for parents, the Durbin-Watson statistic was 1.974 (p = 0.932), indicating no significant autocorrelation (Dancey & Reidy, 2020; Maxwell & David, 1995). 

Table 5. 

Zero-Order Correlations and Multiple Linear Regression Coefficients by Parental Status for subscales within RCAS and WFCS. 

	RA Subscale r(β)	RC Subscale ρ (β)
Parents  (n=41)
WIF Subscale	0.45** (0.43)	0.32* (0.18)
FIW Subscale	0.26 (0.03)	0.30 (0.12)
Non-parents (n=15)
WIF Subscale	0.51 (0.57)	0.32 (0.02)
FIW Subscale	0.34 (-0.08)	0.48 (0.31)

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 

For parents (n = 41), the WIF subscale showed a significant positive correlation with the RA Subscale (r = 0.45, p < .01), and multiple regression confirmed WIF as a strong predictor of RA (β = 0.43). This aligns with earlier findings, where the total WFCS score also exhibited a significant relationship with the RA Subscale (r = 0.403, p < .001). In contrast, the relationship between WIF and the RC Subscale was moderate (ρ = 0.32, p < .05) with a lower regression coefficient (β = 0.18), indicating a less pronounced effect of WIF on role conflict. The FIW subscale showed no significant correlations with the RA Subscale (r = 0.26, p > .05) or the RC Subscale (ρ = 0.30, p > .05), with regression coefficients (β = 0.03 for RA and β = 0.12 for RC) suggesting FIW is not a significant predictor of RCA. 

Among non-parents (n = 15), the WIF subscale had a moderate positive correlation with the RA Subscale (r = 0.51), though it was not statistically significant (p = 0.052). Multiple regression still indicated WIF as a predictor of RA (β = 0.57), but the lack of significance suggests a less robust relationship. The correlation between WIF and the RC Subscale was moderate but not significant (ρ = 0.32, p > .05), with a regression coefficient close to zero (β = 0.02), indicating minimal impact. The FIW subscale showed moderate, non-significant correlations with both the RA Subscale (r = 0.34, p > .05) and the RC Subscale (ρ = 0.48, p > .05), with regression coefficients (β = -0.08 for RA and β = 0.31 for RC) suggesting limited and inconsistent effects on role-related outcomes. 

Overall, Fisher’s z analysis showed no significant differences in correlations between parents and non-parents, indicating that WIF conflict significantly predicts RA across both groups. However, the impact of FIW conflict remains less clear and more variable across groups. 

Chapter 5 Discussion  

5.1 Overall Results  

The results demonstrate a positive association between the RCAS and the WFCS, with parental status influencing these associations. 

Hypothesis 1 was supported, showing significant correlations between RCAS Total and WFCS Total for both parents (r = 0.397, p < .05) and non-parents (r = 0.533, p < .05). The WIF subscale was a strong predictor of RA, indicating that higher WIF conflict exacerbates role-related stress. 

Hypothesis 2, suggesting a stronger positive association between RCA and WFC for parent-counsellors compared to non-parents, was also supported. Parents showed stronger correlations between RA Subscale and WIF Subscale (r = 0.445, p < .01) and between WFCS Total and RA (r = 0.403, p < .001). The RC Subscale also had a moderate correlation with WIF among parents (ρ = 0.317, p < .05). However, Fisher’s z transformation revealed that differences in correlation coefficients between parents and non-parents for RCAS and WFCS Total were not statistically significant (z = -0.526, p = 0.299). This suggests that while there are notable differences in correlation strengths, the overall pattern of associations is consistent across parental statuses. The t-test results showed that while parents experienced higher FIW, this did not translate into greater role-related stress measured by RCAS, possibly due to coping mechanisms. 

5.2 Role Conflict and Ambiguity  

Counsellors working with YP experienced moderate impacts of RCA, with significant associations particularly between RCA measures and the WIF subscale, especially for parent-counsellors. Parent-counsellors exhibited stronger and more significant associations between RCA and WFC, particularly between the RA Subscale and WIF (r = 0.445, β = 0.43, p < .01). This suggests that while parent-counsellors may report lower overall levels of RCA, the role conflict and ambiguity they do experience are more strongly influenced by the challenges of balancing work and family responsibilities.    

In contrast, non-parents, despite showing higher overall RCA levels, had weaker and generally non-significant correlations between RCA and WFC measures. This indicates that while non-parents face more general RCA, these issues are less directly tied to WFC. The higher overall RCA scores for non-parents may stem from broader stressors, including work demands and lack of experience, rather than the specific pressures of managing family and professional roles simultaneously.  

5.3 Work-Family Conflict  

The study revealed distinct dynamics in WFC among counsellors. Although non-parents had slightly higher WFC Total mean scores (M = 3.86, SD = 0.95) than parents (M = 3.22, SD = 1.02), these differences were not statistically significant. Additionally, parent-counsellors exhibited significant positive associations between the WIF subscale and RA subscale (r = 0.445, β =0.43, p < .001). This suggests that work demands significantly increase RA and conflict for parents, likely due to the challenge of balancing both parenting and professional responsibilities.  

Interestingly, the t-test revealed higher FIW scores for parents, even though the correlations were higher for non-parents. This could indicate that while parents report more FIW overall, they may have developed better coping mechanisms, reducing its impact on RCA compared to non-parents. Non-parents, with fewer family responsibilities, might experience a more pronounced potential impact from FIW conflict, as suggested by the higher correlation coefficients (FIW-RCAS Total r= 0.463, FIW-RC ρ = 0.483), despite the lack of statistical significance.  

5.4 Parental Status  

Parental status significantly influenced both RCA and WFC among counsellors. Parents, predominantly female (82.5%), exhibited stronger correlations between RCA and WFC, particularly in WIF, reaffirming the “double burden” women face (Craig, 2007; Chen et al., 2017; Nilsen et al., 2017; Seedat & Rondon, 2021). The significant difference in RCAS Total scores (t = 2.08*) between parents (COV = 0.32) and non-parents (COV = 0.25) suggests that while both groups experience RCA, parents’ greater score variability may reflect diverse coping mechanisms or support systems. Within this study, non-parents were often younger counsellors with less experience and longer work hours, which may explain their higher FIW correlation coefficients, particularly in FIW-RC (ρ = 0.483) compared to parents (ρ = 0.294). 

Ambiguity arose from offering the option of equal caregiver status, which led to 24.64% reporting equal caregiving, 58.97% as the main caregiver, and 15.39% as not the main caregiver. This lack of clear differentiation may have introduced bias and skewed the data, as the study required the primary caregiver to be the parent providing the majority of care. The option for equal caregiver status allowed for varied interpretations of caregiving roles, potentially obscuring the true impact of caregiving responsibilities, particularly under the systemic pressures often faced by women (Falzarano et al., 2020). Further research is needed to explore how gender, age, and experience interact with parental status to influence WFC. A focused study on the “double burden” faced by female parent-counsellors could provide deeper insights and help develop targeted interventions for this group. 

5.5 Strengths and Limitations  

This study’s strengths lie in its focused examination of counsellors who work with YP, a growing population in the UK (BACP, 2021), and a group that has been underrepresented in WFC research. The use of validated scales, including the RCAS and WFCS, ensures robust findings. While initial results suggested that parental status impacts the relationship between WFC and RCA, with stronger associations among parent-counsellors, Fisher’s z analysis revealed that these differences were not statistically significant. This finding reinforces the robustness of the overall pattern of WFC and RCA relationships, regardless of parental status, highlighting the complex nature of managing dual responsibilities 

Several limitations should be considered within this study. The small sample size and reliance on self-reported data limited the generalisability of the findings and introduced potential bias (Brutus et al, 2015). The cross-sectional design also restricts the ability to assess causality between variables. The WFCS, designed specifically for parents, may have led to skewed responses among non-parents, potentially masking genuine distinctions in how they perceive ‘family’ and related conflicts (Haslam et al., 2014). This captures the need for measurement tools that accurately capture varied family structures.  

Additionally, societal pressures, particularly on women and mothers, to excel in multiple roles, as noted in qualitative research on mother-counsellors (Hermann et al., 2019), may lead to underreporting of conflict and denial of systemic burdens. Future research should explore these issues further, employing qualitative approaches to uncover hidden narratives and developing specific scales to capture the diverse experiences of both parent and non-parent counsellors. Expanding the sample size and diversity will also be crucial in understanding how gender roles and societal pressures shape perceptions and reporting of work-family conflict.  

5.6 Theoretical Implications  

The findings align with Role Strain Theory (Creary & Gordon, 2016; Goode, 1960), which highlights how competing demands from professional and family roles create strain and impact counsellors’ wellbeing. The stronger positive association between RCA and WFC, particularly among parent-counsellors, supports this theory, suggesting that balancing these responsibilities increases stress. Strategies such as lowering demands, enhancing resources, role sequencing, prioritisation, boosting social support, and establishing clear boundaries between work and family duties are necessary to alleviate this strain. 

The study also supports Boundary Theory (Ashforth et al., 2000), especially for parent-counsellors who face challenges maintaining boundaries between work and family life, as evidenced by the correlation between WFC and RA (r = 0.403, p < .001). This suggests that parents, who experience higher overall WFC, may navigate more RA as professional demands increasingly overlap with family responsibilities. These results emphasise the need for better boundary management and support strategies for parent-counsellors, who are particularly vulnerable to stress from blurred boundaries. Understanding this dynamic offers a practical framework for addressing the complexities of role conflict and responsibility management in this group. 

5.7 Conclusions and Recommendations  

This study concludes that RCA significantly contributes to WFC among counsellors working with YP, particularly highlighting the association between WFC Total and RA among parents (r = 0.403, p < .001). Parental status emerged as a key factor, indicating that it prospectively heightens RCA due to dual pressures of managing both professional and family responsibilities. Although primary caregiving status did not show a significant direct effect in this study, the potential for bias related to how caregiving responsibilities are perceived suggests that further research is necessary. This includes examining how gender roles, cultural expectations, and individual interpretations of ‘family’ and ‘caregiving’ might influence the dynamics of WFC. This study critically examines the social and institutional power dynamics that exacerbate WFC and RCA among counsellors, particularly parent-counsellors, highlighting the need for structural changes in workplace policies and support systems to address these inequities and promote gender equity. 

The data revealed the need for developing a scale that more accurately captures the diverse family structures and caregiving responsibilities within the counselling profession. Such a tool would enable more precise measurement of WFC and RCA, thereby helping researchers, supervisors, and practitioners better address these unique challenges and improve support systems tailored to the needs of counsellors. Additionally, considering the complex interplay between professional and personal roles, especially among parent-counsellors, future research should also explore how factors like job demands, support systems, and workplace flexibility interact with family responsibilities to influence role conflict and ambiguity. The example interventions provided in Appendix K offer practical starting points for mitigating these challenges, paving the way for counsellors to achieve greater growth and resilience in both their professional and personal lives.  

  

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Glossary 

Counsellor: Any mental health professional qualified to therapeutical work to provide counselling, psychotherapy and mental health interventions. 

RCAS: Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale 

RCA: Role Conflict and Ambiguity  

RC: Role Conflict (a subscale within the RCAS) 

RA: Role Ambiguity (a subscale within the RCAS) 

WFCS: Work-Family Conflict Scale 

WFC: Work-Family Conflict 

WIF: Work interfering with family conflict (a subscale within the WFCS) 

FIW: Family interfering with work conflict (a subscale within the WFCS) 

YP: Young People